Comarative Analysis of Video Games

Comparative Study of Video Gaming Systems Final Report Due Date: August 10, 2011 Table of Contents Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 Research Data†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 Results†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 17 Conclusions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦24 Recommendations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 25 Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 27 List of Figures Graph 1. 1: Role-Playing Games Bar Graph Graph 1. 2: Adventure Games Bar Graph Graph 1. 3: Platformer Games Bar Graph Table 1. 1: Xbox 360 – Hardware SpecificationT able 1. 2: Xbox 360 – Total Games in Preferred Genres Table 1. 3: Wii – Hardware Specification Table 1. 4: Wii – Total Games in Preferred Genres Table 1. 5: Playstation 3 – Hardware Specificaton Table 1. 6: Playstation 3 – Total Games in Preferred Genres Table 1. 7: Comparing Costs Table 1. 8: Comparing Hardware Specifications Table 1. 9: Comparing Games Offered pt. 1 Table 1. 10: Comparing Games Offered pt. 2 Table 1. 11: Comparing Target Demographic Table 1. 12: Comparing Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches Table 1. 13: Comparing Movie-Playing Features Table 1. 14: Overall RankingTable 1. 15: Retail Locations and Prices Introduction Pascal, after remodeling your house and adding a bonus/entertainment room, you mentioned that you would love to buy a new video gaming system. The last video gaming system that you owned was a Nintendo 64, which pales in comparison to the systems available today. Since owning a Nintendo 64, your experience with playing video games has been limited to playing MMORPGs (Massive Multi-player Online Role Playing Games) on your personal computer. I have been researching your options and am constantly considering your preferences and restrictions.Your primary preference is game genre, with your most preferred genre being Role-Playing. Several other genres that you are interested in are Action, Adventure, Platformers, and Strategy. Your only real restriction is a spending limit of $700 for your entire gaming setup. Other preferences that have been noted are the system’s Blu-Ray capabilities, and that the system targets a mature audience. The three most prominent video gaming systems on the market that fit your preferences are Microsoft’s Xbox 360, Nintendo’s Wii, and Sony’s Playstation 3. The following criteria are being used to evaluate your options. Cost * Hardware Specifications * Games Offered * Target demographic * Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches * Movie- Playing Features The remaining contents of this comparative study will be organized into the several sections. RESEARCH DATA will be presented organized first by option and then by evaluative criteria. Each of the evaluative criteria will be compared in the RESULTS section by showing the results for each option side-by-side. These results will be totaled and a final CONCLUSION will be made. Finally, I will make a RECOMMENDATION as to the most appropriate course of action.Research Data Microsoft Xbox 360 Cost: $199. 99 – includes a 4GB console with built-in wi-fi, one wireless controller, A/V cables, and a one-month subscription to Xbox LIVE Gold. Hardware Specification: The following table shows vital hardware specifications that are important to your gaming preferences. Table 1. 1: Xbox 360 – Hardware Specification * Media Type| * DVD| * CPU| * 3. 2  GHz PowerPC Tri-Core Xenon| * Internal Memory| * 4 GB Flash| * RAM| * 512 MB| * Online Services| * Xbox Live| * Onlin e Multi-Player Services| * Yes| * Connector Types| 1 x AV cable port,5 x USB 2. , 1 x Kinect port,1 x HDMI output1 x SPDIF output,1 x Ethernet| * * Games Offered: The following table shows how many Xbox 360 games are offered in your three most preferred genres. Table 1. 2: Xbox 360 – Total Games in Preferred Genres Genre| Titles Available| Action| 563| Role-Playing| 108| Strategy| 48| The following images show compiled game review scores by genre to show which console does best for several preferable genres. The results have been split into two types for each console. The lighter shaded color bars show the average score for all games for the specified system in that genre.The darker shaded color bars show the average score of just the top 5 best-scoring games in that genre for the specified system. Graph 1. 1: Role-Playing Games Bar Graph Graph 1. 2: Adventure Games Bar Graph Graph 1. 3: Platformer Games Bar Graph Target Demographic: The target demographic of the Xbox 360 is most easily identified and quantified by looking at the ESRB ratings of the most popular game titles. The following is a list of the number of Xbox 360 titles offered for each ESRB game rating. EVERYONE – 303 Titles rated E (Everyone) have content that may be suitable for ages 6 and older.Titles in this category may contain minimal cartoon, fantasy or mild violence and/or infrequent use of mild language. EVERYONE 10+ – 213 Titles rated E10+ (Everyone 10 and older) have content that may be suitable for ages 10 and older. Titles in this category may contain more cartoon, fantasy or mild violence, mild language and/or minimal suggestive themes. TEEN – 535 Titles rated T (Teen) have content that may be suitable for ages 13 and older. Titles in this category may contain violence, suggestive themes, crude humor, minimal blood, simulated gambling, and/or infrequent use of strong language. MATURE – 491Titles rated M (Mature) have content that may be suitable for persons ages 17 and older. Titles in this category may contain intense violence, blood and gore, sexual content and/or strong language. RATING PENDING – 149 Titles listed as RP (Rating Pending) have been submitted to the ESRB and are awaiting final rating. (This symbol appears only in advertising prior to a game's release. ) Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches: The ten most common hardware malfunctions and glitches for the Xbox 360 are as follow: * 3 red flashing lights, also known as â€Å"Red Ring of Death† * Open tray and/or disc error messages * No video or only audio DVD laser replacement * DVD drive replacement * System freezes, dotted video or similar issues * 1 red light, E74 * 2 red lights * Stuck DVD tray * White screen Most of these issues must be dealt with by professionals and will be costly. Self-repair is a possibility, but is not recommended. Most systems run into issues eventually, but the Xbox runs into hardware problems more frequently than the other options. Movie-Playing Features: The Xbox 360 is capable of playing the following types of multimedia discs (list does not include Blu-Ray): * Xbox 360 Discs * Xbox 1 Discs * DVDs * CDs * DVD-R * DVD+R * DVD-RW * DVD+RW * CD-R CD-RW * Dual Discs Nintendo’s Wii Cost: $149. 99 – includes one remote controller, one nun chuck controller, one wheel controller, one sensor bar, and Mario Kart for Wii. Hardware Specification: The following table shows vital hardware specifications that are important to your gaming preferences. Table 1. 3: Wii – Hardware Specification * Media Type| * Flash Memory Card, * Nintendo Wii Disc, * Nintendo GameCube Disc| * CPU| * 729 MHzIBM PowerPC â€Å"Broadway†| * Internal Memory| * 512 MB| * RAM| * 512 MB| * Online Services| * Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, WiiConnect24,| * Online Multi-Player Services| * Yes| Connector Types| (4 pin USB Type A),4 x Game controller,Component video output,Composite video output,S-Video output,2 x USB| * Games Offered: The following table shows how many Wii games are offered in your three most preferred genres. Table 1. 4: Wii – Total Games in Preferred Genres Genre| Titles Available| Action| 593| Role-Playing| 33| Strategy| 32| Also, see the graphics and information in the section Microsoft’s Xbox 360 – Games Offered. Target Demographic: The target demographic of the Nintendo Wii is most easily identified and quantified by looking at the ESRB ratings of the most popular game titles.The following is a list of the number of Wii titles offered for each ESRB game rating. EVERYONE – 916 Titles rated E (Everyone) have content that may be suitable for ages 6 and older. Titles in this category may contain minimal cartoon, fantasy or mild violence and/or infrequent use of mild language. EVERYONE 10+ – 355 Titles rated E10+ (Everyone 10 and older) have content that may be suitable for ages 10 and older. Titles in this category may contain more cartoo n, fantasy or mild violence, mild language and/or minimal suggestive themes. TEEN – 374Titles rated T (Teen) have content that may be suitable for ages 13 and older. Titles in this category may contain violence, suggestive themes, crude humor, minimal blood, simulated gambling, and/or infrequent use of strong language. MATURE – 57 Titles rated M (Mature) have content that may be suitable for persons ages 17 and older. Titles in this category may contain intense violence, blood and gore, sexual content and/or strong language. RATING PENDING – 61 Titles listed as RP (Rating Pending) have been submitted to the ESRB and are awaiting final rating. This symbol appears only in advertising prior to a game's release. ) Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches: Three common hardware malfunctions and Glitches for the Wii console are as follows: * Power Supply Issue * WiConnect 24 Issue * Dual Layer Wii Disc Problem All of these minor issues are covered by warranty and do not occur on the same scale as other video gaming system. The most common issue relating to the Wii system occurs when an excess of light interferes with the Wii Remote. Movie-Playing Features: The Nintendo Wii is only capable of playing Wii and GameCube discs and does ot support the playing of DVD or Blu-Ray Discs. Sony’s Playstation 3 Cost: $299. 99 – Includes access to the Playstation Network at no charge, 160GB harddrive, and one wireless controller. Hardware Specification: The following table shows vital hardware specifications that are important to your gaming preferences. Table 1. 5: Playstation 3 – Hardware Specificaton * Media Type| * Blu-Ray| * CPU| * 3. 2 GHz IBM Cell Broadband Engine (8-core)| * Internal Memory| * 160 GB HDD| * RAM| * 256 MB XDRAM| * Online Services| * Playstation Network| * Online Multi-Player Services| * Yes| Connector Types| 2 x USB,1 x Ethernet,1 x HDMI output,1 x PlayStation 3 AV output,1 x SPDIF output| * Games Offered: The fol lowing table shows how many Playstation 3 games are offered in your three most preferred genres. Table 1. 6: Playstation 3 – Total Games in Preferred Genres Genre| Titles Available| Action| 536| Role-Playing| 117| Strategy| 33| Also, see the graphics and information in the section Microsoft’s Xbox 360 – Games Offered. Target Demographic: The target demographic of the Playstation 3 is most easily identified and quantified by looking at the ESRB ratings of the most popular game titles.The following is a list of the number of Playstation 3 titles offered for each ESRB game rating. EVERYONE – 481 Titles rated E (Everyone) have content that may be suitable for ages 6 and older. Titles in this category may contain minimal cartoon, fantasy or mild violence and/or infrequent use of mild language. EVERYONE 10+ – 186 Titles rated E10+ (Everyone 10 and older) have content that may be suitable for ages 10 and older. Titles in this category may contain more car toon, fantasy or mild violence, mild language and/or minimal suggestive themes. TEEN – 529 Titles rated T (Teen) have content that may be suitable for ages 13 and older.Titles in this category may contain violence, suggestive themes, crude humor, minimal blood, simulated gambling, and/or infrequent use of strong language. MATURE – 373 Titles rated M (Mature) have content that may be suitable for persons ages 17 and older. Titles in this category may contain intense violence, blood and gore, sexual content and/or strong language. RATING PENDING – 145 Titles listed as RP (Rating Pending) have been submitted to the ESRB and are awaiting final rating. (This symbol appears only in advertising prior to a game's release. ) Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches:The five most common Playstation 3 hardware malfunctions and glitches are as follows: * Yellow light of death (3 red light beeps) * Not reading games/blu-rays * No video * Stuck discs * No power Doing self-re pair is very difficult on the Playstation 3 is highly discouraged. Most of these issues are not easy fixes and require the replacement of key components. Movie-Playing Features: The Playstation 3 is capable of playing the following types of multimedia discs (list includes Blu-Ray): * Playstation 1,2, and 3 Discs * Blu-Ray Discs * DVDs * CDs * DVD-R * DVD+R * DVD-RW DVD+RW * CD-R * CD-RW * Dual Discs RESULTS Comparing Costs The following table shows your three options with their prices and a ranking based on affordability. Table 1. 7: Comparing Costs Option| Cost| Ranking (1-Best Option)| Microsoft’s Xbox 360| $199. 99| 2| Nintendo’s Wii| $149. 99| 1| Sony’s Playstation 3| $299. 99| 3| BEST OPTION: All Because you have already identified that your spending limit is $700 for a gaming setup, none of these options go against your cost preference. Cost is not a preventative factor in purchasing a video gaming system based on this information.However, if you decide th at you would like to readjust your spending limit given the substantial difference between your limit and the prices of the systems, the Wii is your best option. Comparing Hardware Specifications The table below lists the hardware specifications for each option, and also includes the online capabilities of each system and their respective networks. Table 1. 8: Comparing Hardware Specifications | Options| Hardware Specification| Xbox 360| Wii| Playstation 3| * * Media Type| * * DVD| * * Flash Memory Card, * Nintendo Wii Disc, * Nintendo GameCube Disc| * * Blu-Ray| * * CPU| * * 3.   GHz PowerPC Tri-Core Xenon| * * 729 MHzIBM PowerPC â€Å"Broadway†| * * 3. 2 GHz IBM Cell Broadband Engine (8-core)| * * Internal Memory| * * 4 GB Flash| * * 512 MB| * * 160 GB HDD| * * RAM| * * 512 MB| * * 512 MB| * * 256 MB XDRAM| * * Online Services| * * Xbox Live| * * Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, WiiConnect24,| * * Playstation Network| * * Online Multi-Player Services| * * Yes| * * Yes| * * Yes| * * Connector Types| 1 x AV cable port,5 x USB 2. , 1 x Kinect port,1 x HDMI output1 x SPDIF output,1 x Ethernet| (4 pin USB Type A),4 x Game controller,Component video output,Composite video output,S-Video output,2 x USB| 2 x USB,1 x Ethernet,1 x HDMI output,1 x PlayStation 3 AV output,1 x SPDIF output| * Ranking| 1| 3| 2| BEST OPTION: Microsoft’s Xbox 360 Because your preference is to play online Role-Playing Games, the focus of the hardware specification criterion has to be online capabilities. When it comes to online game-play, Xbox 360 has the technical specifications to make it the best option.One of the most important specifications in a system is its processor speed. The Xbox 360 boasts a 3. 2  GHz PowerPC Tri-Core Xenon processor, which is the same speed as the Playstation 3, but far superior to the Wii. When it comes to intense online game play with potentially dozens of other players, it is important to have a processor that can keep up. To keep the whole system running smoothly and minimize lag time, it is also important to have a substantial amount of RAM. The Xbox 360 and Playstation 3 have 512 MB or RAM, while the Wii only has 256 MB.At this point, the Xbox and Playstation 3 are nearly equal in terms of specifications that lean toward online gaming. What really pushes the Xbox 360 in the lead is their network: Xbox Live. As of 2011, Xbox Live has over 30 million users worldwide. Most of the games that are played on the Xbox Live network are geared toward your gaming preference of Role-Playing and Adventure games. However, due to the massive size of the network and the sheer number of users, even a less popular category like Strategy is available for multi-player gaming.According to Michael McNeilly, an experienced Xbox 360 online gamer, â€Å"There is really nothing like the Xbox Live network out there. The network for PS3 is okay, but it isn’t nearly as big and has a lot of bugs that still haven’t been worked out. † Michael Mcneilly has played all of the other systems extensively, but due to his love for online gaming, he chose the Xbox 360. Ralph Jones, an avid Wii owner and player, explained to me that he really has no need to play online. He mostly enjoys the physical nature of the Wii’s gameplay, and doubts that the Wii is even capable of serious online gaming.According to Kyle Johnson, an avid gamer and owner of all three options, the Wii is not a competitive option in terms of online gaming. When asked about the Playstation 3 and its online gaming community, Kyle explained that there is a reason that the Playstation Network does not have a subscription fee. It is not adequate when compared to Xbox Live, and the number of users sometimes makes it hard to play the less popular games online. Clearly, the Xbox 360 offers the best of both worlds. It has a massive online gaming community and also boasts a powerful 3. GHz processor. With processor speed and RAM that are equal to the Pl aystation 3 and far superior to the Wii, the Xbox Live community is what gives the Xbox 360 the top ranking and makes it the best option in terms of hardware specification. Comparing Games Offered Table 1. 9 lists a calculated average of the two figures previously provided in graphs 1. 1, 1. 2, and 1. 3. These figures were mean game-review scores of all games in three genres, and mean scores of the top-five best-selling games for the three genres. Table 1. 9: Comparing Games Offered pt. 1 | Options|Genre| Xbox 360| Wii| Playstation 3| Role-Playing Games| 79. 4| 72. 7| 71. 75| Adventure Games| 76. 1| 76. 7| 77. 9| Platformer Games| 76. 2| 72. 2| 76. 2| Ranking| 1| 3| 2| Table 1. 10 shows how many games are available for each system in your most preferred genre: Role-Playing Games. Table 1. 10: Comparing Games Offered pt. 2 | Options| Genre| Xbox 360| Wii| Playstation 3| Role-Playing Games| 108| 33| 117| Ranking| 2| 3| 1| BEST OPTION: Microsoft’s Xbox 360 Based on the averages found for all five relevant genres, the Xbox 360 is the best option for the Games Offered criterion.Even though the Playstation 3 has a slightly higher total number of Role-Playing Games available for sale, it does not outweigh the fact that the Xbox 360 scored significantly higher on overall game-review scores. It is generally more important to have higher-rated games than a greater quantity of lower-rated games. For this reason, the Xbox 360 is the best choice for the Games Offered criterion. Comparing Target Demographic Table 1. 11 displays your three options and the total number of ratings received for each rating category out of all games available for each system. Table 1. 11: Comparing Target Demographic Options (Number of Ratings)| Rating| Microsoft’s Xbox 360| Nintendo’s Wii| Sony’ Playstation 3| Everyone| 303| 916| 481| Everyone 10+| 213| 355| 186| Teen | 535| 374| 529| Mature| 491| 57| 373| Rating Pending| 145| 61| 145| Ranking| 1| 3| 2| BEST OPTION: Microsoft’s Xbox 360 Based on all of the games available for each gaming system, the Xbox 360 has the most games with ratings in the Mature and Teen categories. Since you, Pascal, are an adult and prefer the types of games that are most commonly rated Teen and Mature, the Xbox 360 gets the top rank for the Target Demographic criterion.Sony’s Playstation 3 comes in second with a comparable number of games in the Teen and Mature rating categories, but they are not quite as high as the Xbox 360. Nintendo’s Wii has least number of ratings in each of those categories. The Wii has a staggeringly low number of games in the Mature category at 57, and roughly 150 less games in the Teen category than the Xbox 360 and Playstation 3. This makes it clear that the Xbox 360 is geared toward an adult audience, and will likely have more games that suit the preferences of an adult. The Playstation 3 is a close second, but still offers significantly less games in the Mature catego ry.The Wii seems to be geared toward a younger, less mature audience, and will likely have the least number of games that will fit your preferences. With all of this considered, it is clear that the Xbox 360 is the best option for the Target Demographic criterion. Comparing Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches Table 1. 11 shows all of the common hardware malfunctions and glitches for each option. This table also assigns a ranking (1 being the system with the overall least severe hardware problems relative to the other options). Table 1. 12: Comparing Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches | Options| Microsoft’s Xbox 360| Nintendo’s Wii| Sony’s Playstation 3| Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches| *Complete System Crash – â€Å"Red Ring of Death†*Basic Hardware Failure (eg. DVD tray and laser failure)| *Power Supply Issue*WiConnect24 Issue*Dual-Layer Wi Disc Failure| *Complete System Crash –â€Å"Yellow Lights of Death†| Ra nking| 2| 1| 3| BEST OPTION: Nintendo’s Wii Based on this table and other research, I have identified Nintendo’s Wii as your best option for the Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches criterion. Even though the Wii does run into problems occasionally, they are rarely as severe as they are with the other options.All of the problems listed for the Wii are covered by warranty and are not worthy of complete system replacement. Alternatively, the Xbox 360 and Playstation 3 both commonly run into full system crashes, which render the system unusable. Kyle Johnson, an avid gamer and owner of all three options, has never run into a problem with his Wii, but has experienced full system crashes on both his Xbox 360 and Playstation 3. The only reason the Xbox 360 is ranked higher than the Playstation 3 is because self-repair on the Playstation 3 is strongly discouraged.Kyle Johnson and Michael McNeilly have both performed minor repairs on their Xbox 360’s, but have neve r dared to open up their Playstation 3’s. With all things considered, Nintendo’s Wii is the best option for the Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches criterion. Comparing Movie-Playing Features Table 1. 13 below shows all of the media discs played by each option, and whether or not that option satisfies your preference of having a built-in Blu-Ray player. Table 1. 13: Comparing Movie-Playing Features | Options| | Xbox 360| Wii| Playstation 3|Media Discs Played| * Xbox 360 Discs * Xbox 1 Discs * DVDs * CDs * DVD-R * DVD+R * DVD-RW * DVD+RW * CD-R * CD-RW * Dual Discs | * Wii Discs * GameCube Discs| * Playstation 1,2, and 3 Discs * Blu-Ray Discs * DVDs * CDs * DVD-R * DVD+R * DVD-RW * DVD+RW * CD-R * CD-RW * Dual Discs | Satisfies Preference? | No| No| Yes| Ranking| 2| 3| 1| BEST OPTION: Sony’s Playstation 3 Based on the media discs that each option offers, Sony’s Playstation 3 is the obvious choice for the top rank in the Movie-Playing Features criteri on.The Playstation 3 is capable of playing both DVDs and Blu-Rays, while the Xbox 360 is only capable of playing DVDs. The Nintendo Wii, however, cannot even play DVDs. Because you have identified that you prefer a video gaming system that has a built-in Blu-Ray player, the Playstation 3 is the best option for the Movie-Playing Features criterion. CONCLUSIONS Table 1. 14 lists the rankings of each of the six evaluative criteria used throughout this report. In order to come to an overall conclusion as to which option to select, I have assigned reversed point values to the previously determined rankings.If, for instance, an option received a ranking of 1, it would be valued a 3. A ranking of 2 receives a value of 2, and a ranking of 3 is valued a 1. The total number of points will be shown at the bottom of the table along with the final ranking. The video gaming system with the highest number of points will be ranked as 1 and will be your best option. Table 1. 14: Overall Ranking | Op tions| Evaluative Criteria| Xbox 360| Wii| Playstation 3| Cost| 1| 1| 1| Hardware Specification| 1| 3| 2| Games Offered| 1| 3| 2| Target Demographic| 1| 3| 2|Common Hardware Malfunctions and Glitches| 2| 1| 3| Movie-Playing Features| 2| 3| 1| Total Points| 16| 10| 13| Overall Ranking| 1| 3| 2| RECOMMENDATIONS It has been determined that Microsoft’s Xbox 360 is the best option, and I would like to recommend to you several retailers where it is available for purchase. The price is universal when bought new, but may vary depending on bundling and other promotions. I have prepared a table showing three popular retailers, the nearest location, and the price of the Xbox 360 4GB system. Table 1. 15: Retail Locations and PriceRetailers and Locations| Price| GameStop(425) 895-833116475 NE 74TH STRedmond, WA 98052| $199. 99| Target(425) 482-641013950 NE 178th PlWoodinville, WA 98072| $199. 99| Walmart(425) 741-94451400 164Th St SwLynnwood, WA 98087| $199. 99| Throughout my research I b egan to realize that the final outcome would depend heavily on how much any criterion was valued. Based on your personal preferences, the best choice is the Xbox 360. However, if you decided that you valued having a Blu-Ray player above everything else, then the Playstation 3 would be the best option.If you decided that the only way to play Role-Playing Games was to use a remote and a nun chuck, then the Wii would be the best choice. It all depends on the valuing of any particular criterion. If you are interested in doing further research, the bibliography lists all sources used. My personal interviewees may be available if you would like to ask them questions, and all of my other sources have a variety of useful and reliable information. Based on everything I have learned from this report and my personal experience with the system, I believe that the Xbox 360 is the best choice for a video gaming system.Bibliography â€Å"Console at Nintendo – Wii. † Nintendo Wii Cons ole. Web. 07 Aug. 2011. Dotree, Phil. â€Å"3 Common Wii Technical Problems. † Associated Content from Yahoo! – Associatedcontent. com. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. â€Å"ESRB Ratings Guide and Definitions. † Entertainment Software Rating Board. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. â€Å"How to Fix Common Xbox 360 Problems: Same Day Repairs, Low Prices. † Same-day Xbox Repair. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. Johnson, Kyle. Owns All Three Options, Personal interview. 29 July 2011. Jones, Ralph. Wii Owner, Personal interview. 30 July 2011. McNeilly, Michael. Xbox 360 Owner, Personal Interview. 0 July 2011. â€Å"Microsoft Xbox 360 Slim Specs (4GB) – Consoles – CNET Reviews. † Product Reviews – Electronics Reviews, Computer Reviews ; More – CNET Reviews. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. â€Å"Nintendo Wii Specs (original, Wii Sports Bundle) – Consoles – CNET Reviews. † Product Reviews – Electronics Reviews, Computer Reviews ; More – CNET Revie ws. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. â€Å"PlayStation 3 – 160 GB System. † PlayStation – PS3. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. â€Å"Playstation 3 Search – GameStop. † Games for PS3. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. â€Å"Sony PlayStation 3 Slim Specs (160GB) – Consoles – CNET Reviews. Product Reviews – Electronics Reviews, Computer Reviews & More – CNET Reviews. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. Towell Justin, Games Radar UK, â€Å"Which console does best and worst in each genre? † 09 Aug. 2011. â€Å"Wii Search – GameStop. † Games for Wii. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. â€Å"Xbox 360 4GB Console – Xbox. com. † Xbox 360 – Official Site – Xbox. com. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. â€Å"Xbox 360 Game Search – GameStop. † Games for Xbox 360. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. â€Å"Xbox 360 4GB Console – Xbox. com. â₠¬  Xbox 360 – Official Site – Xbox. com. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. [ 2 ]. â€Å"Microsoft Xbox 360 Slim Specs (4GB) – Consoles – CNET Reviews. † Product Reviews – Electronics Reviews, Computer Reviews & More – CNET Reviews. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. . [ 3 ]. â€Å"Xbox 360 Game Search – GameStop. † Games for Xbox 360. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. . [ 4 ]. Towell Justin, Games Radar UK, â€Å"Which console does best and worst in each genre? † 09 Aug. 2011. [ 5 ]. Towell [ 6 ]. Towell [ 7 ]. Towell [ 8 ]. Towell [ 9 ]. Towell [ 10 ]. GameStop [ 11 ]. GameStop [ 12 ]. â€Å"ESRB Ratings Guide and Definitions. † Entertainment Software Rating Board. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. . [ 13 ].Xbox 360 Game Search – GameStop [ 14 ]. ESRB [ 15 ]. Xbox 360 Game Search – GameStop [ 16 ]. ESRB [ 17 ]. Xbox 360 Game Search – GameStop [ 18 ]. ESRB [ 19 ]. Gamestop Xbox 360 Search [ 20 ]. ESRB [ 21 ]. â€Å"How to Fix Common Xbox 360 Pr oblems: Same Day Repairs, Low Prices. † Same-day Xbox Repair. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. . [ 22 ]. Johnson, Kyle. Owns All Three Options, Personal interview. 29 July 2011. [ 23 ]. Johnson [ 24 ]. Johnson [ 25 ]. â€Å"Console at Nintendo – Wii. † Nintendo Wii Console. Web. 07 Aug. 2011. . [ 26 ]. â€Å"Nintendo Wii Specs (original, Wii Sports Bundle) – Consoles – CNET Reviews. Product Reviews – Electronics Reviews, Computer Reviews & More – CNET Reviews. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. . [ 27 ]. â€Å"Wii Search – GameStop. † Games for Wii. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. . [ 28 ]. Towell [ 29 ]. Wii Search – GameStop [ 30 ]. Wii Search – GameStop [ 31 ]. ESRB [ 32 ]. Wii Search – GameStop [ 33 ]. ESRB [ 34 ]. Wii Search – GameStop [ 35 ]. ESRB [ 36 ]. Wii Search – GameStop [ 37 ]. ESRB [ 38 ]. Xbox 360 Game Search – GameStop [ 39 ]. ESRB [ 40 ]. Dotree, Phil. â€Å"3 Common Wii Technical Problems. † Assoc iated Content from Yahoo! – Associatedcontent. com. Web. 4 Aug. 2011. . [ 41 ]. Dotree [ 42 ]. Jones, Ralph. Wii Owner, Personal interview, 30 July 2011. [ 43 ]. Jones [ 44 ]. â€Å"PlayStation 3 – 160 GB System. † PlayStation – PS3. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. . [ 45 ]. â€Å"Sony PlayStation 3 Slim Specs (160GB) – Consoles – CNET Reviews. † Product Reviews – Electronics Reviews, Computer Reviews & More – CNET Reviews. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. . [ 46 ]. â€Å"Playstation 3 Search – GameStop. † Games for PS3. Web. 04 Aug. 2011. . [ 47 ]. Towell [ 48 ]. Playstation 3 Search – GameStop [ 49 ]. Playstation 3 Search – GameStop [ 50 ]. ESRB 51 ]. Playstation 3 Search – GameStop [ 52 ]. ESRB [ 53 ]. Playstation 3 Search – GameStop [ 54 ]. ESRB [ 55 ]. Playstation 3 Search – GameStop [ 56 ]. ESRB [ 57 ]. Playstation 3 Search – GameStop [ 58 ]. ESRB [ 59 ]. How to Fix Common Xbox 360 Prob lems [ 60 ]. Johnson [ 61 ]. Johnson [ 62 ]. Johnson [ 63 ]. Johnson [ 64 ]. McNeilly, Michael. Xbox 360 Owner, Personal Interview. 30 July 2011. [ 65 ]. Johnson [ 66 ]. Johnson [ 67 ]. McNeilly [ 68 ]. Jones [ 69 ]. Jones [ 70 ]. Johnson [ 71 ]. Johnson [ 72 ]. Johnson [ 73 ]. Johnson [ 74 ]. Johnson, McNeilly

Brief History of BMW Essay

BMW began making its mark on history almost 90 years ago. Aircraft engines were the first thing to be produced followed by bikes and then cars – these vehicles also have been setting milestones in the area of motorsport from the very start. We can establish BMW roots back well over 100 years, to December 3, 1896. That date marked the formation of Wartburg works in Eisenach, the BMW manufacturing center for all cars made from 1928 to 1940. From that site and Wartburg’s numerous alliance before being sold to BMW in 1928 stretched activites as diverse as saucepan manufactured, powered mountain bikes, and the brake company. The car-construction tale of the Eisenach arm is the subject of a sub-sequent chapter. ( Airborne Excellence- page 5) However, basics of the heartland Munich-based company arrived in 1916 when the two airplane-engine manufacturing workshop Gustav Rau GmbH and Rapp Motorenwerken GmbH) were subject to takeovers and closures that resulted in the March 7, 1916 registration of Bayerische Flugzeugwerke AG (BFW). Its purpose as stated in the Munich Register of Companies â€Å"the manufacture and commercial distribution of airplanes and any related machinery, equipment and other objects, and further, in the pursuit of this purpose, the founding of other enterprises in any legally permissible form, or participation therein, and also the running of companies of any sort†. When Franz-Joseph Popp took over Karl Rapp as the new managing director on 5 October of 1917, he register the company as the Bayerische Motoren Werke GmbH. At the same time Poppo registered the company’s trademark, which still remains today- the stylized whirl of a rotating propeller surmounted by the letters BMW. (Achievements in White and Blue BMW in Retrospect- page 8) In 1917, BMW’s first aircraft engine was produced, the 6 cylinder Type IIIa. In 1919 using an aircraft powered by its successor, the Type IV, Franz Zeno Diemer set an altitude record of 9,760 metres. After WW1 BMW turned all kinds of activities, including shoe-making, to survive, But Popp and Friz were engineers, first and foremost, and there was no doubt that BMW would return to aero engine manufacture. (Motorcycle Marvels- Chapter2). In 1923 they enter the motorcycle production as a result. The motorcycle, the R 32 produced 8. 5 horsepower at 3300rpm from its flat-twin engine. The 2-cylinder 494cc motorcycle could reach a top speed of 59mph. 090 of them were manufactured during its three year life span. It was 1928 that made history in terms of the BMW car. BMW buys the Eisenach automobile plant, where the Austin Seven was successfully produced under the name â€Å"Dixi 3/15 PS†. Later it rebadged them to DA2. Which further went on to become a BMW – going on sale in 1929 as the BMW 3/15 PS DA 2 with a range of different body shells. A small car with a lot of appeal, its popularity helped the company to survive the lean years of the Depression. By 1932 BMW’s first â€Å"real† car (AM 4) went into production, this model was the successor of the Dixi and the first production car to be built totally in house by BMW. The model had a 50 mph top speed, 4 cylinder engine with suspension valves and double driving camshafts. In 1936 a sporting legend was born when the BMW 328 went on to win at the nuburging, which was basically the fastest standard-production 2-liter sports car. It went on to win over 120 other race between 1936 and 1940. BMW became a priority target during World War 2 and reaped a terrible reward for its famous aero engine and military prowess. The BMW factory at Munich was totally devastated after the War. The first post war model, the V8 equipped 501 luxury sedan produced in 1951 was a poor production choice for a country that was also devastated by the war. Demand was low and the 501 did not even com e close to meeting BMW’s expectations. So in a tightrope act between two extremes, to prevent the company bleeding to death at the top end of the automobile market, BMW’s policy was to introduce mini cars at the other end of the market. The BMW Isetta finally won the hearts of the public. Just 2. 29 m long, the company obtains the licence to build the motocoupe from ISO in Italy. Powered by a 12 or 13 hp BMW motorcycle engine. Over 160,000 people bought an Isetta in the Fifties, making it the best-selling BMW of the decade and a symbol for the boom years after the war.

One Foot in Eden Essay

It is impossible to go through life without making any. What we choose can define us, can close off a part of our life that, had we chosen differently, could have led to something completely different. Many things can influence our choices, from morals, to peers, to experience. Usually, it is our own morals and opinions that decide what we do. How we were raised, what we were taught, and what we have picked up along the way. Family plays a large part in our decisions. Many people think about what someone in their family would do when faced with a difficult decision. In One Foot in Eden, Amy weighs the pros and cons of sleeping with Holland to get pregnant. She carefully thinks about what her husband would do if he found out. This may be a bad example, as she decides to sleep with him anyways. Also, simple things that we learn in school allow us to make informative judgments. Peers also play a significant role. It is almost human nature to please others, or to fit in. Something we would not normally do, we do to make others like us. We might also refrain from acting a certain way that might prevent others from accepting us. This is why it is common that teens begin smoking, or doing some other dangerous habit, all to â€Å"be cool. † Our experiences shape many of our choices. If we know from experience that we will get a bad or painful response to an action, we avoid that action. We will also repeatedly make choices that produce a good or pleasant effect. We face many obstacles by trial and error, and if we have done something before, we know what actions elicit what responses. In conclusion, our choices, whether they are made from our experiences, our peers, or our morals, immensely affect our lives. The factors that influence our choices, be they good or bad, are directly related to the outcome of those decisions.

Usefulness of Cognitive Theories of Motivation Essay

Usefulness of Cognitive Theories of Motivation - Essay Example Observations made by economists indicate that entrepreneurial activities are deemed to be supreme sources of technological innovations hence it is important to understand the influence of regional culture on entrepreneurship activities. Recent surveys on entrepreneurship reveal that Wales has been doing quite well. This success is associated with regional focus on entrepreneurship behavior and development (Aldrich, 2000). Theories - These are set of statements devised to elaborate a phenomenon which has been reviewed more than once. The phenomena should be one that has been universally accepted and can be used to predict occurrence of natural phenomena. According to Aldrich (2000), success of entrepreneurs depends on their willingness to become what they want. In the pursuit of entrepreneurial opportunities, individual willingness is essential during decision-making upon discovery of these opportunities. This aspect matters a great deal when an individual is pursuing resources and wh en designing mechanisms to be used in exploiting the discovered opportunities. Human motivations should accompany willingness for the entrepreneurial activities to be effected. Cognitive theories of motivation are very useful during decision making and it influences the way one undertakes the enterprising process. They affect locus of control i.e. individuals’ beliefs that their actions affect the outcomes (Aldrich, 2000). These theories help individuals to explore entrepreneurial related phenomena.

German Immigration to America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

German Immigration to America - Essay Example 370). This fact indicates that as neighbors, there is a high probability that they knew each other prior to undertaking the voyage. Estimating the average cost needs the cost of the fare multiplied by the quantity (number of people who undertook the voyage). Since the exact number of people were not available, it would be safe to approximate the quantity using the mean family size, which also represents â€Å"the mathematical average of all the terms† (Giles-Peter, 2005, par. 2) and therefore would appropriately estimate the average number of family members who undertook the voyage. It is important to study statistical information from the past because it provides crucial information that explains historical data, such as the number of Germans who migrated to the United States and the cost of undertaking such journey. It provides vast amounts of information relative to demographic factors, average family size, income level, and way of life, among others. Their willingness to journey to an unknown and unfamiliar place indicated that their way of life in Germany was difficult and they were looking forward to be the promise of a better life in

Men and Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Men and Women - Essay Example Moreover, they also have similarities and differences in terms of emotional and psychological needs which will be dealt with in detail. Firstly, men and women have similar physical needs such as food, clothing and shelter. Both genders need food and water in order to live. They also need clothing not only to beautify themselves but especially to keep them away from the dangers of the environment such as the dangerous effects of the heat of the sun or from the cold during winter. Shelter is also necessary for both men and women to keep them secure. Secondly, they have similar emotional needs such as the need to be loved. Since love is said to be the universal language, it is evident that people around the world regardless of race, age and gender need this emotional value that seems to be naturally a part of every individual. In addition, men and women experience pain, discouragements and other negative emotional stressors that affect the way they live. Thus, they also need emotions that soothe the pains such as joy, assurance and encouragements to lift their spirits and enable them to overcome the difficulties life b rings. Thirdly, men and women also have similar psychological needs. Since they have similar fears and concerns, men and women need similar psychological interferences. For instance both men and women worry about how they look so they both need to be assured that they look good. When they have achieved something, both men and women need to be praised for their success or they will feel like they are failures. On the other hand, there are also differences between men and women that make them distinctly different from each other. First among these differences would be their physical needs. For instance, women are known to be more concerned about how they look therefore, they spend more time and money on their clothing, accessories and make up. They spend a lot of time thinking about how they would appear so that women often end up spending

Energy drink case Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Energy drink case - Research Paper Example It is, therefore, feasible to posit that market positioning of alternative beverages is largely dependent on product differentiation. Just like in production of carbonated drinks, principal sellers in alternative soft drinks industry are globally renowned beverage manufacturers like PepsiCo and Coca-Cola (Barr & Hajela, 2013). This is ascribable to the fact that the two companies already had strong brands in the beverage industry before venturing into the provision of alternative beverages. Nonetheless, other beverage manufacturers like Hansen Natural Corporation, which produces Monster Energy and Red Bull GmbH, have succeeded in building recognized brands, while gaining a considerable share of the potent alternative beverage industry. Even though the latter industry was projected to sustain the steady growth observed previously, it suffered a setback following the 2008 financial recession. Unfavorable economic conditions impeded consumers’ buying capacity thus resulting in a significant decline in sales, particularly those of highly-priced alternative beverages. All the same, industry analysts foresee improvement in sales of alternative soft drinks with time, as carbonated drinks consumers progressively shift their preference towards the relatively new beverage category. Competing companies in this industry can only increase their chances of success depending on their readiness to match volatility of consumer trends, capacity to build brand loyalty, willingness to adopt innovation, and ability to increase distribution and marketing channels, among other distinctive strategies. Global beverage organizations like PepsiCo and Coca-Cola are focusing on reversing the major decline of carbonated by venturing into production of alternative beverages. These organizations have expanded their market presence by introducing vitamin drinks, sports drinks, and energy drinks in the international market (Esterl, 2013). Additionally,

History of Drug-Prohibition Laws in the USA Essay

History of Drug-Prohibition Laws in the USA - Essay Example Initially, this measure was a colossal victory. However, it eventually turned out to be a complete failure as its negative effects started to show up over the years. Finally, 21st Amendment was made to remove the prohibition. History of Drug-Prohibition Laws in the USA Drugs and alcohol have been prohibited at different points in time in the history of the USA. Availability of alcohol was first limited in the USA in Massachusetts during the 1830’s. During those years, Indians were forbidden the purchase of alcohol in the USA. 13 states of the USA enforced laws prohibiting alcohol from 1851 to 1855. Tea Importation Act of 1897 was the first law of consumer protection. There occurred a revolutionary change in the history of drug prohibition laws with the start of the 20th century. Till then, there were no Federal laws to control the distribution of drugs in the USA. People had easy access to drugs and alcohol. Food and Drug Act of 1906, Hague Conventions of 1912, and the Harriso n Tax Act of 1914 were important measures taken in the start of the 20th century to regulate the supply of drugs in the USA. The Volstead Act or 18th Amendment was ratified in the 1920’s. It was particularly implemented on 16 January 1921. implemented on 16 January 1921.   Concluding, the 18th Amendment enacted in 1921 that prohibited the supply of alcoholic beverages in the USA survived only till 1933. In these 13 years, the public opinion evolved from supporting the prohibition to criticizing the legislation of morals. An in-depth analysis of the consequences of prohibition suggests that the 18th Amendment was a complete failure.

Pentateuch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pentateuch - Essay Example This text is predominantly for a first-time-reader. The narrative has many surprises, authentic innovations and ironies. Take for example Turner’s comments about the first verse of Genesis. To quote the first verse, â€Å"In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the spirit of God was hovering over the waters.†(Genesis 1:1, 2, NIV) Turner responds to this revelation thus: â€Å"The first verse of Genesis not only reveals a lot about God, but also attacks the common ancient view about religion. In doing this, it sets the trend of the creation account as a whole, which takes every opportunity available to confound the conventional wisdom of its time.†(p.19) The thinking of the people impacted by the materialistic civilization, scientific advancement, industrial and internet revolution have put many of the original contents of the Genesis in dock. Voluminous literatures, a number of books have been published on Genesis, and many attempts have been made to probe its depths. The intellectuals, the mind-level scholars interact with biblical texts in novel ways, and this stand was unthinkable a generation ago. Many have the audacity to comment that Genesis reflects the viewpoints of the time to which it belonged. Turner is quick to counter such mind-level architects of the scriptures vehemently. He writes, â€Å"This is not the case. Genesis has always been out of step, not only with the prevailing views of its own time, but also with ours today. It was radical then. It is radical now.†(p.19) To put God in the weighing scale of intellectualism and treat His revelations like the oscillating pendulum, is the worst mistake committed by the present day scholars who make attempts to interpret Genesis. But it is possible for a discerning reader or critic,

Discussion Board Assignment 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Discussion Board Assignment 3 - Essay Example At times denying them their rights to knowledge of the workplace or leading others to treat them badly (Huotari and Iivonen, 56). It can be reduced through the placing of an elaborate conflict resolution procedure by the organizations management. The organization should also welcome members of the labor organizations to teach their employees about their rights and responsibilities while they are working in the organization. Another way to deal with this problem will be to administering strict punishments to those found abusing their positions by bullying employees (Belasen, 78). If all the above are taken efforts are taken into consideration, the bullying would reduce, and the organization will experience all the profitability associated with highly motivated employees who do their work without fear of being bullied. In conclusion, core principals are important to solve organizational mistrust. It is important to focus on the four core principles that ensure there is harmony in the organization that include integrity, result-oriented culture, intent and focusing on the capabilities of the individual. The four principals focus on the aspects that create trust, which is very crucial in the

Acupressure Complimentary Treatment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Acupressure Complimentary Treatment - Assignment Example Acupressure machine rental within the center itself. The machines can be used in the center which will be open six days per week and can be rented out on a pay per session rate of  £10 plus vat or a monthly subscription of  £100 per month plus vat. The complementary therapy. The therapists will be partnering with the center so they will not receive payment for attending rather they will receive a fifty percent split on profits earned per session. My model encourages the complimentary treatment model to be rolled out away from its usual niche environment and instead it is on offer in a high street setting. Up to now, any complimentary centers which I have seen operating in the high street have operated in below par premises which are not in keeping with a therapeutic environment. By offering a quality service in a high street environment at a competitive rate this presents a unique offering to the customers. Furthermore, the implementation of acupressure rental is a significant addition to the therapeutic center; it provides an economic therapeutic option to the customer while presenting my business with another viable income stream. Also, complementary treatments can be upsold from acupressure rental subscribers and cross sales can be created from therapy customers to acupressure machine rental. Up sales to complementary therapies in the center namely: Acupuncture; Head massage; Reflexology and kinesiology and also cross sales back from the therapies to device rental. There is also the logic behind the therapies been offered; acupuncture is a natural progression from acupressure rental; head massage is a quick and relaxing treatment which suits busy shoppers as does Reflexology.  Ã‚  

Elective Affinities by Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe Essay Example for Free

Elective Affinities by Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe Essay Edward and Charlotte are a middle-aged couple, happily married, and who live comfortably in a considerable estate in early 19th century Germany. Edward was an only child, and thus was accustomed to getting what he wanted from life. Charlotte was a strong, level-headed woman, who, in spite of being at about the same age as Edward, displayed a character that was far more mature. The characters lived a relaxed, nobleman’s life, and Charlotte spent most of her time arranging and decorating the area around their land. The couple had loved each other in the past in their youth; however they were married to different people to satisfy the wishes of their parents. Both of their spouses died early, and Edward, after traveling abroad, came back and married Charlotte. The two were discussing their great fortune at still having time to cherish the moments they never had in their youth, but Edward had other plans. His best friend, the Captain, wanted a job that would suit his multiple talents, and Edward felt obliged to hire him and have him stay with them. Charlotte opposed the idea at first, but assented afterwards, but revealing to Edward that she felt the same with Ottilie, her niece who was not adjusting very well to school. The Captain was the first to arrive at the estate. In little time he got acquainted with his surroundings, and set about to change them to what he felt was better taste than what Charlotte has done. Charlotte became busy with other things, including correspondence with officials from the school where her daughter, Luciana, and Ottilie were studying. Luciana was a great student and she was always at the top of her class. Ottilie, on the other hand, was a shy and timid student, but the Assistant to the superior saw a potential in Ottilie that nobody else did. Edward, Charlotte and the Captain were enjoying each other’s company, and on one particular discourse they discussed among them the elective affinities, the tendencies of chemical species to combine with certain substances in preference to others. They related the somewhat obscure subject matter to themselves, and whether these affinities apply to human relationships too, unknowingly foreshadowing their ultimate fates. Ottilie arrived at the estate shortly afterwards, and although a timid girl, she was exceedingly beautiful that the company was inspired by her presence. She quickly became efficient at managing the household, which delighted Charlotte, who was spending more and more time with the Captain due to her desire to see the fruits of his plans for the estate. Edward then, found himself spending more time with Ottilie, who he quickly grew fond with. The plans for remodeling the estate were numerous, and the four all contributed plans towards the final end. Ottilie’s suggestion on the placement of a new house was unexpected because she was so timid, but everybody agreed with it. The Captain busied himself with the remodeling, and although he felt an attraction to Charlotte he thought the better of it and tried to stay away from her. However, he resolved to finish the new house’s foundation on Charlotte’s birthday, which he did. The day after Charlotte’s birthday, two visitors arrived at the estate, the Count and the Baroness, who were unmarried lovers as well. In observing their hosts’ situation, the Baroness deduced that Edward and Ottilie were lovers, The Count meanwhile had noticed the Captain’s usefulness, and intended to hire him, much to the hidden despair of Charlotte who was also very much in love with the Captain. With Ottilie still on his mind, Edward nevertheless goes to his wife and spends the night together with her. The day after, Ottilie revealed to Edward that she loved him, something that he was exceedingly happy about since he shared the intense feelings as well. Charlotte and the Captain had an adventure of their own, in which the Captain kissed her and apologizing afterwards. Charlotte recognized that she had an obligation to her husband, and thus cut short the affair with the Captain. Ottilie and Edward estranged themselves from the two others, while their passion grew with letters and secret correspondence with each other. Edward became busy with the preparations for Ottilie’s birthday, as the Captain was making preparations for his departure to the Count. On Ottilie’s birthday, Edward was ecstatic—he prepared an extravagant gift of cloth and made preparations for a big fireworks display. When a certain embankment fell to the water and almost caused the drowning of a party-guest, everybody felt that further festivities were no longer proper, except the now madly-in-love Edward. After the Captain’s departure, Charlotte tried to save their marriage by sending Ottilie away, but she failed when Edward, not knowing what to do, decided to go away himself. Otillie, saddened by the loss of her love, nevertheless kept her faith that he would come back for her. Edward wrote a letter to Charlotte that kept Otillie with her until Edward’s return. Charlotte learned shortly after that her night with Edward during the Count’s visit conceived a child, and through Mittler, her ambassador at the moment, relayed it to Edward, Mittler, a once-minister who thought all marriage is sacred, set to Edward to try to mend their matrimony. Upon learning of the news, Edward is more confused and sets off with a death wish to join the armed forces. By this time, the Architect, a pupil by the Captain, had taken over remodeling of the estate. With an affinity for the arts, Otillie becomes attached to the Architect, albeit only thinking of him as a comfortable brother. In Edward’s absence, Luciana returns from school with a bridegroom, and she magnifies the difference between her and the timid Otillie. After Luciana left, the Assistant comes to see Otillie—he too is in love with her, but Otillie’s heart is unattainable. She becomes attached to Edward and Charlotte’s baby, Otto. After his stint in the army, Edward returns with a clear mind—he is going to take Otillie for himself, and engages his best friend—now a Major—to help him get a separation from Charlotte. An accidental encounter along the lake reunites Edward and Otillie, but afterwards Otillie’s carelessness caused the drowning and death of Otto. When the Major arrives to tell Charlotte about Edward’s proposition, she is still shaken by the death of her son. Otillie, in guilt, resolved to renounce Edward and her love for him after the Major left. Plans were made to return Ottilie to school; however, Edward caught her in a hotel on the way there. Ottilie had renounced Edward, and thus spoke not a word to him, but she went back to the estate. Once back, Edward, the Major and Charlotte tried to make her speak once more, but she did not. In fact, she was starving herself secretly, and she died afterwards. In a short time, Edward, who could not live without Ottilie, found no reason to live either, and followed his love to the grave.

Force Plate Design And Use Health And Social Care Essay

Force Plate Design And Use Health And Social Care Essay Force plates are a powerful tool for examining the kinetic characteristics of an athletes movement. The plates offer a large variety of information about the external forces involved, but have very specific characteristics that define the potential quality of collected data. Through proper understanding of these qualities, and sound use of calibration, filtering, and sampling procedures, the user can ensure that the error disguising the signal of interest is minimized. Thus, the collected data is at its highest possible quality, and inference about the athlete in question is strongest. This paper deals with the aforementioned topics related to force plate design and use, including a section describing an example laboratory set-up. Keywords: force plate, filtering, sampling, data collection, kinetic Introduction Force is the entity that results in movement- it can be understood as a push, or pull, or simply, a tendency to distort a material. Measurement of force can allow a coach or sport scientist to quantitatively understand an athletes execution of a skill, or to assess an athletes physical progress. For example, assessment of the external forces applied to the ground by an athlete in a vertical jump provide a very good picture of the explosive abilities of an athlete, as well a very good indicator of the progress of those abilities if measured at multiple time points in a training program. Force plates and other force measurement devices are widely used to assess the external forces generated by athletes. Force plates in particular measure external ground reaction forces in up to three planes -vertical, anterior-posterior, and medial lateral. This data provides a picture of the interaction within an athlete-ground system, something extremely difficult to do without a force plate. It is important to distinguish between kinetic and kinematic analysis. Kinematics is related to movement, what is visually observable, e.g. positions velocities and directions, while kinetics refers to what causes the movement to occur (i.e. torques and forces), and is not directly observable. Force plates allow one to see the kinetic characteristics of a skill, and thus the forces that cause the precise execution of that skill. Force Plate Design and Use Force plates measure external forces based on the principles of Newtons third law- that an object exerting a force on another object has a simultaneous force exerted upon it that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the original force exerted. Thus, the force plate measures ground reaction force (GRF). GRF is the force the ground exerts as a reaction (equal, opposite, and simultaneous) to the forces applied to the ground or other object by the athletes body (see Figure 1). This principle allows the researcher to determine the forces exerted by an athlete while in contact with the force plate. In a vertical jump for example, the athletes body mass and propulsion forces from the jump exert a push on the plate, causing a tendency of the plate to distort. This tendency is measured as GRF. The kinetic information obtained from force plate data then provides an understanding of the kinematic characteristics through a derivation of Newtons second law that the force on a body is directly proportional to the mass of the body and the acceleration of the body, represented by the equation force = mass X acceleration. Given that the forces can be measured by a force plate, and the mass of the athlete is known, a very good understanding of the kinematic characteristics of the skill can be obtained through calculation of the acceleration of the athlete using the aforementioned equation. Five important pieces of information can be obtained from a modern full featured force plate: force in the X, Y, and Z directions, the center of pressure, and moment (torque) around each of the axes. Each of these variables shows a picture of the forces exerted by an object (i.e. a limb) on the force plate. This data allows the investigator to determine a multitude of measures. For example, force plates have been used to study the take-off forces in pole vault technique (3) and the forces involved in the second pull in weightlifters (7); as it stands, the uses for force plates are numerous. Before analysis and use of the collected data, processing of the analog signal must occur. Figure 2 shows the complete flow of the force plate data, from the initial analog signal output (continuous voltage) from the force plate, to the final digital input signal leading into the final analysis. Force is applied to the force plate, which changes the excitation charge sent through the force plate in proportion to the force applied. That new charge is sent to an amplifier. Analog signal processing (some kind of filtering or smoothing of the signal) can occur. After the signal has been amplified, the current goes to a data acquisition device, where it enters an analog-digital converter which converts the continuous analog signal to a discrete digital signal. The newly-converted digital data is recorded as evenly spaced samples, and more processing of the digital signal can occur. It is at this point that the recorded digital signal can be analyzed. Load Cells Forces must be measured through indirect means, through a force transducer. A force transducer functions toconvert physical states into electrical signals (21). The load cells in a force plate transduce the force applied to the plate into a measureable electrical voltage and current. There are a variety of load cell types. Two commonly used load cells in force plates are piezoelectric transducers and strain-gauge load cells. Both types of load cells receive an excitation voltage input, and output an different electrical current which is proportional to the load experienced by the cell (based on Ohms Law: current = voltage / resistance) (1). The operation of each differs in a few distinct ways. Piezoelectric cells operate based on the fact that when a piezoelectric material has a force applied to it, a charge appears on the face of the material; This charge is proportional to the force applied. Recording of the resultant voltage allows calculation of the applied force. The strain gauge load cells operate on the fact that changes in electrical current occur when a metal or semiconductor is deformed (1, 19). A thin sheet of metal or semiconductor material is bonded to a metal object, which provides a solid structural device on which to apply the force. Deformations in the device and the bonded sheet result in changes of the electrical resistance of the bonded sheet, thus modifying the current that moves through the bonded sheet. Monitoring of these changes allow for calculation of the force applied to the device. A common form of the strain gauge is the shear beam load cell (1, 19). One end of the beam is anchored to a stable platform, while the other is extended so that it can receive a load. A foil sheet or semiconductor is bonded to the beam, and an electrical current is run through the sheet. Force applied at the end of the beam (perpendicular to the plane of the sheet) causes deformation of the beam, resulting in electrical resistance changes across the sheet bonded to the beam. This results in a different electrical current and allows measurement of the applied force. Shear beam load cells have the advantage of a high force capacity and accurate measurement, which can make them a good candidate for use in force plates. A typical tri-planar force plate is constructed with four three-component load cells (14). Each three-component cell measures force in the X, Y and Z direction, and the placement of the load cells allow for calculation of center of pressure, center of force and torque about the axes. The four load cells are arranged in each of the four quadrants of the force plate, evenly spaced from each other and from the edges. Moment about the axes, center of pressure and center of force can be calculated based from measurements from data from individual load cells and their respective locations on the forceplate. Typically, the forces that are transduced from force plates are summed from measurements from individual force transducers on the plate. For example, in a force plate with four load cells, one in each corner, vertical ground reaction force is calculated from the sum of the forces measured on each cell. Likewise, in a force plate that is capable of anterior-posterior measurement or medial-lateral forces, the forces of interest are the summed composed of the total of the load cells of the plate. Sampling Monitoring the changes in force applied to the force plate requires sampling at regular intervals. Sampling frequencies of 500 to 2000 hertz (Hz) have been noted in the more recent sport science literature, however a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz is perhaps most common (14). While substantial research has examined sampling frequency in a wide variety of applications (engineering, for example), substantially less has been done to examine sampling frequency in sport science, although several authors have evaluated the variability of vertical jump performance data with different sampling frequencies. Vanrenterghem, et al. (24) found that sampling frequencies of above 100 Hz were adequate and Hori, et al. (10) found that sampling at about 200 Hz was accurate enough for accurate measurement. Contrary to the previous authors, Street, et al. (23) found that sampling rates of less than 1080 Hz could lead to an underestimation of jump height (calculated via the impulse method) by up to 4.4%. Other authors have recommended a sampling frequency of 500 Hz or 1000 Hz in force plate research to ensure accuracy, especially when impact is involved (2). Sampling frequencies must be high enough to ensure accuracy of measurement and reduction of signal aliasing (where the recorded digital signal fails to accurately show the original signal due to inadequate sampling). The Nyquist Theorum suggests that the absolute minimum sampling frequency is two times the frequency of interest. Bartlett (2) recommends a sampling frequency of at least 500 Hz, however 1000 Hz is a common choice for force plate capture of human motion (14). High sampling frequency is especially important when creating force-time curves in the early time segments of the curve. For example, some performance monitoring testing evaluates forces applied in the first 50ms of application of force in the isometric mid-thigh pull (12). At a sampling frequency of only 200 ms, if one were to construct a force-time curve, only 11 data points could be used for constructing this 50ms long curve. While a polynomial function could be applied to the 11 data points, a greater degree of accuracy for the curve will be obtained with a frequency of 500 Hz or 1000 Hz, because there would be 26 and 51 data points, respectively, from which to construct a curve. Signal Amplification and Conditioning Data collected from the force plate is not useable until amplification and signal processing occurs. Typically, analog signals (the raw voltage values) from the force plate are amplified and sent to an analog to digital (AD) converter (14). The AD converter then converts the analog voltage signal into a scaled digital signal, a signal that is able to be processed by computer software. Custom software developed in programs like LabVIEWTM (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA) or Matlab (Mathworks Incorporated, Natick, MA, USA) can perform signal processing to clean up some of the noise from the data for use. Other methods exist for smoothing data that can be done in spreadsheet software such as Microsoft ExcelTM (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA). Many force plates come with proprietary software with filtering and smoothing methods included. Through the collection process, amplification and A/D conversion, there are a number of electrical noise sources that may contaminate the data (5). A number of methods exist for filtering the noise in the signal, in order to best isolate and identify the signal of interest. This filtering can be done on either the analog or digital signal, or both. A low-pass filter eliminates frequencies above a certain level defined in the method, while a high-pass filter eliminates frequencies below a designated level. As noise often occurs at higher frequencies, a low pass filter is able to eliminate much of the noise in the signal. Sometimes it is necessary to restrict the data collected to within a range of frequencies, during which time a band-pass filter can be used. Other times it is necessary to eliminate a certain range of frequencies from a signal; a notch filter will be able to accomplish that task. There are a multitude of signal processors and conditioners that are used in digital signal processing. Three common methods of reducing signal noise are Butterworth filters, splines and frequency domain techniques, such as Fourier Analysis (5). Yet another method is a moving average, which is relatively simple to calculate in Excel. Each of these methods operates differently, and provided that the optimal filter is applied to a signal, the end result is the same: the signal is less choppy and smoother, thus data is cleaner and easier to analyze (for more detailed information, the reader is directed toward Bartlett (2), Challis (5)) and Street, et al. (23). The general recommendation for filter choice is the one that most effectively and accurately isolates the signal of interest. Calibration Force plate calibration is necessary to establish a regression equation to calculate ground reaction forces from output voltage, as well as to ensure accuracy of data obtained from testing. Because force plates only provide an output voltage, a calibration equation must be used to calculate what the ground reaction forces actually are. Unfortunately, often little is done by researchers to address the proper calibration of force plates (9). While calibration of some of the testable variables of the force plate can be difficult, calibration is absolutely necessary given the immense error that can be introduced even with small errors in calibration (9). The general idea behind calibration is that a range of known forces is applied to the force plate to see the resultant voltage given by the load cells, allowing the creation of a regression equation (1). For the Z-direction, a common method of calibration is to place a range of dead weights of known mass on top of the force plate, which allows the researcher to calibrate based on the resulting output voltage of the known mass. Calibration of the horizontal forces, torque and center of pressure can be a more difficult endeavor. However, researchers have proposed methods of calibration that are possible in the laboratory environment, such as a pulley system for X- and Y-direction calibration as proposed by Hall, et al. (9). In the pulley system, a regression equation is built from the output voltages with progressively higher (horizontally) applied loads. A pendulum system for dynamic calibration designed by Fairburn, et al. (6) is also a possibility for more advanced calibration. In-laboratory testing would allow a laboratory to avoid the potentially expensive calibration that is done by the force plate companies and private metricians. Technical Information of Note Force plate technical reports typically contain a data table with information about some or all of the following: linearity, hysteresis, crosstalk, and/or natural frequency. Each of these items provides valuable information about the characteristics of the force plate, as each affects the data obtained from it. Refer to Table 1 for recommended ranges. Linearity Linearity is the maximum deviation of collected force plate data from a straight line (2). Perfect linearity is ideal, but is not necessarily a requirement for accurate data collection and analysis, as it can be calibrated for by applying a higher order polynomial to the data points(2). Linearity can be expressed as: ( Where y=maximum deviation from linearity, and Y=full scale deflection (8). Full scale deflection refers to the voltage output with the highest load within the limit of the force plate. Dividing deviation from linearity by the highest voltage achieved gives a relative measure of linearity, and allows comparison to a standard. Hysteresis Hysteresis is the difference in output values seen during the loading and unloading of a material (2). This is a quality that should also be minimized, as many force plate measurements involve both a loading and unloading component (see Figure 3). For example, large hysteresis in a load cell might over-estimate the forces in the eccentric portion of a squat, while correctly estimating the forces during the concentric portion. Hysteresis is sometimes seen as a result of a mechanical lag in deformity return to normal shape occurring during loading of the force transducers. Hysteresis can be calculated with the equation: ) Where XL = output voltage for a given load during loading, XU = output voltage for the same given load during unloading, and Z =full scale deflection (2). Cross-Talk Many force plates measure forces in multiple planes; the components required to measure the different directions generally have at least a minor amount of cross-talk. Cross-talk refers to the interference of force in one component direction with the measurement of force by a component in another direction (2). It is important that this quality is minimized, so that forces from one plane are not measured on another, thus falsely attributing forces to an incorrect source. Bartlett (2) stated that less than 3% of full-scale deflection is preferable. Natural Frequency Maximum Frequency Ratio When struck, every object has a frequency at which it will tend to vibrate, (5). Force plates, as they are constructed of multiple materials, sometimes have multiple natural frequencies. Force plate manufacturers often report the natural frequency of the force plate when set up according to manufacturer specifications. This natural frequency should be significantly higher than that of the measurement, as it greatly increases the ease of isolating the measurement signal from the plate vibration. Force plates generally have high natural frequencies to aid in the ease of isolation through filtering. For example, the Kistler Type 9281E Triplanar force plate has a natural frequency of 1000 Hz (Kistler Group, Winterthur, Switzerland). The high natural frequency of this force plate is high enough to measure the impact activities of sports, which can surpass 100 Hz (2). The ratio of frequency of the measured skill to natural frequency (Maximum Frequency Ratio) should be less or equal to 0.2, so that the information of interest in the signal can be effectively isolated from the natural frequency of the plate. Minimizing Error The possibility of inaccurate measurements must be minimized if accurate conclusions are to be drawn. Certain steps can be taken to reduce the possibility of error, although even the most optimal setup will have at least a small amount of error. First and foremost, if a user does not know how to properly use the force plate and the software associated with it, the largest source of error may be the user himself. In this article, it is emphasized that with a proper education and the right information, the reader of this paper should be able to understand the basics of using a force platform, thus severely reducing potential for user error. Adherence to the recommendations by Bartlett (2) will also serve to ensure accuracy of the data collected by the plate. Any deviance of the force plate characteristics outside of the recommendations increases the risk of inaccuracy. For example, Lees and Lake (14) and Hall, et al. (9) showed how cross-talk of even 1% could introduce a large amount of error in certain gait measurements. Calibration should occur over a range of loads, from unloaded to above the highest expected load, within the manufacturer-specified loads of the force plate (if the expected loads are outside of the range, then a new plate with greater load range is necessary). For example, in an isometric pull, where measurements of vertical ground reaction force can exceed 7000 N or more (4), the force plate should be calibrated in the Z-axis with loads ranging from 0kg to more than 700kg. For horizontal calibration, a pulley system, like the one designed by Hall, et al. (9) would suffice. Dynamic calibration can be a bit more tricky, requiring expensive equipment or complex methodology. This can be done by major force plate companies or by private metricians. It is also extremely important to install and adjust force plates based on manufacturer recommendations. Manufacturer-reported technical data about the force plate (e.g. hysteresis, linearity) are measured and determined under set conditions. Recommendations for where the force plate is installed, the type of flooring installed on and which floor level it is installed on must all be followed. A level surface for installation is required. Should the conditions during use deviate from those specified by the manufacturer, there is the possibility that those reported qualities (linearity, hysteresis) are no longer accurate. Even with an ideal setup, there remain other sources for error. Other such sources of error are thermal noise, chemical noise, and electrical interference. Thermal noise is associated with the temperature of the device in use. Part of the reason for allowing a device to warm up is so that thermal noise is allowed to stabilize, as rising component temperatures result in changing electrical noise. Chemical noise is random noise that exists everywhere, and comes from variations in temperature, humidity, pressure and other sources. Electrical noise results from devices around the testing area that use electricity, such as lighting and equipment. Electrical noise is at 60 Hz and progressively weaker at its harmonics- 120 Hz, 180 Hz, etc. For example, if a force platform is placed in a room that has fluorescent lights, air conditioning/heat, and the building is located near power lines, electrical noise may be a substantial source of interference. In all devices, the measured value is the result of the true score plus error. While one can attempt to eliminate as much error as possible, there will always be a degree of error in the collected data. It is up to the tester to eliminate and reduce as many sources of error as possible, and a theoretical judgment as to how much error in the collection is acceptable. Our Laboratory Equipment and Processing While our laboratory uses tri-directional force plates, the majority of force plates we use are unidirectional, and measure only in the vertical direction (See Figure 4 for a photo). Although it is a drawback to only allow collection in the vertical direction, the plates offer a substantial reduction in cost over other plates offered by KistlerTM or AMTITM, for example. Furthermore, a number of studies have demonstrated that vertical forces and vertically- oriented skills have strong relationships to explosiveness and speed in sporting movements, thus measurement of vertical forces is of substantial importance (12, 20, 22, 25). In addition, we use force plates (0.914 x 0.46 m; 3 x 1.5; Rice Lake Weighing Systems, Rice Lake, WI) situated side-by-side to allow for collection of unilateral force data. For bilateral data collection, the forces from each force plate are summed. Each plate sits on a level concrete pad that is on the ground floor of the laboratory, to reduce contamination o f data from extraneous sources. Each force plate in the Sport Science laboratory is attached to Transducer Techniques TM0-2 amplifier and conditioner module (Transducer Techniques, Temecula, CA, USA). The amplifier provides both the excitation signal (the initial current going to the strain gage load cell) and amplification of the analog signal. In addition, the module provides an analog low-pass filter at 16 Hz. In between the amplifier/conditioner and the A/D converter is a shielded connector block. The BNC-2110 (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA) accepts the analog signal and conveys the signal to the A/D converter. The block then connects to a DAQCard-6063E (National Instruments, Austin TX, USA). The DAQCard-6063E converts the analog signal to a digital signal. The digitized signal is then analyzed with custom software developed in LabVIEWTM (National Instruments, Austin TX, USA). The custom software weve developed in LabVIEWTM samples the analog signal at 1000hz. The custom software has been set up to save the digital signal file and filter the digitized signal using a 4th order low-pass Butterworth filter at 100 Hz. From there, the signal can be analyzed for whatever variables are of interest. Refer to Kraska, et al. (12) for examples of measures of interest for static and countermovement jumps, and Leary, et al. (13) for examples of measures of interest in the isometric mid-thigh pull. The Data Collection Process Calibration of our force plates is performed immediately before the data collection process, which ensures that the calibration equation used in data analysis is established under similar environmental conditions as the data collection as well as avoids a potential shift of voltage output over time. Prior to calibration, force plates, amplifiers, A/D converters and computers are all turned on so that all of the collection equipment can warm up (thus stabilizing thermal and instrumentation noise). After this warm up period, the force plates are calibrated using loads from 0 kg to 350kg or 500kg, depending on the specific use of the plate (either jumps or isometric pulls). The plates are progressively loaded in 25kg increments, with the output voltage recorded each time. A linear regression equation is then applied to the calibration load data set in Microsoft Excel. This regression equation is saved, and used in the custom LabVIEWTM program during analysis. Conclusion A full understanding of a testing device and its characteristics are an integral part of accuracy, validity and reliability of testing. The force plate is a rather complex device. The complexities of the device and its peripherals allow the user to collect a large variety of high-quality data for analysis that are difficult to obtain via other means. While it is somewhat difficult to master use of the device, the plethora of information that can be obtained from a force plate makes the endeavor more than worthwhile.

Fiber optics and its applications

Fiber optics and its applications INTRODUCTION Nothing in the world gives us more power and confidence than having information. The ability to communicate information is essential to achieve the successful advancement of humankind. Transmission of information is imperative to the expansion of our horizons. What does this all have to do with fiber optics? This research paper will cover the basis of fiber optics in terms of its transmission, communication, origin, uses and applications. Fiber optics transports light in a very directional way. Light is focused into and guided through a cylindrical glass fiber. Inside the core of the fiber light bounces back and forth at angles to the side walls, making its way to the end of the fiber where it eventually escapes. The light does not escape through the side walls because of total internal reflection. Why is fiber optics so important? Besides being a flexible conduit that is used to illuminate microscopic objects, fiber optics can also transmit information similarly to the way a copper wire can transmit electricity. However, copper transmits only a few million electrical pulses per second, compared to an optical fiber that carries up to a 20 billion light pulses per second. This means telephone, cable and computer companies can handle huge amounts of data transfers at once, much more than conventional wires can carry. Fiber optic cable was developed because of the incredible increase in the quantity of data over the past 20 years. Without fiber optic cable, the modern Internet and World Wide Web would not be possible. WHAT IS FIBER OPTICS? Fiber optics is extremely thin strands of purified glass that carry information from one point to another in the form of light. Unlike copper wire, fiber optics does not use electricity during transmission. Optical fibers can be either glass or plastic tubing capable of transmitting light, which is then converted into sound, speech or information. Fiber optic cables transmit a digital signal via pulses of light through the very thin strands of glass. A basic fiber optic system consists of: a transmitting device, which generates the light signal, an optical fiber cable, which carries the light, and a receiver, which accepts the light signal that was transmitted. A fiber optic strand is about the thickness of a human hair, about 120 micrometers in diameter and can carry as many as 20 billion light pulses per second. The fibers are bundled together to form optical bundles, which transmit the light signals over long distances up to 50 km without the need for repeaters. Each optic fiber is made up of three main parts: The core or the centre of the optical fiber is a very thin strand of glass that carries the light signal. The cladding is the optical material which reflects the light signals back into the core. This prevents the light from escaping and allows it to travel through the fiber. The outside jacket or buffer coating is made of a plastic material that protects the optical fiber from any moisture, corrosion and external damage. There are only two types of fiber optic cable: Glass fibers, which are more common, because they allow longer distance transmission and they are more efficient. Plastic optical fibbers are used in less technical applications and are normally used in very short-length transmissions. HOW ARE OPTICAL FIBERS MADE? Optical fibers are made of very pure glass. The glass core or centre is made of silica and is purified to minimise the loss of signal. It then gets coated to protect the fibers and to contain the light signals. The light signals carried by the optical cable consist of electrical signals that have been converted or changed into light energy. The following process is followed to manufacture the optical fibers: The Manufacturing of the Preform Blank The silica must first be purified before it can be spun into glass fibers. This process takes a long time and the silica is heated to very high temperatures and then distilled to purification. The sand is heated to a temperature that will change the silica into a gaseous state. The silica will then be combined with other materials called dopants, which will react with the silica (in its gaseous state) to form the fibers. All the solid impurities are removed and the gas is cooled to form the fiber material. A process called modified chemical vapour deposition (MCVD) is used to change the glass into the preform blank. During this process oxygen is bubbled through solutions of silicon chloride (SiCl4), germanium chloride (GeCl4) and other chemicals. The gas vapours are channelled to the inside of a synthetic silica quartz tube in a special lathe to form the cladding. While the lathe rotates a burning flame is moved back and forth on the outside of the tube. The extreme heat from the burner causes the following: The silicon and the germanium react with oxygen to form silicon dioxide (SiO2) and germanium dioxide (GeO2). The silicon dioxide and the germanium dioxide settles on the inside of the tube and it fuses together to form glass. The lathe turns continuously to allow the preform blank to be coated evenly. To maintain the purity of the glass a corrosion resistant plastic is used to accurately control the flow and the structure of the mixture. This process of manufacturing the preform blank takes a couple of hours. The preform blank is cooled and is inspected for quality through an inspection and control process. Drawing fibers from the Preform Blank After testing the preform, it is placed into a fiber drawing tower. The preform blank gets lowered into a furnace and is heated between 1,900 °C to 2,200 °C until the tip starts to melt an a molten blob starts to fall down. As it drops down, it cools and forms a strand. This strand is pulled through a sequence of coating cups (buffer applicators) and curing ovens using ultraviolet light, and then coiled onto a tractor-controlled reel. This process is accurately controlled using a laser micrometer to measure the thickness of the fiber. This information is then sent back to the tractor mechanism. The tractor mechanism pulls the fibers at a rate of 10 to 20m/sec and the finished product is wound onto a spool. A spool can contain more than 2,2km of optical fiber Testing the Finished Optical Fiber Once the optical fiber is manufactured it goes through a process of testing. The following tests are done: Tensile strength The fibers must withstand 100,000 lb/in2 or more Refractive index profile Determine that the core diameter, cladding dimensions and coating diameter are uniform. Screen also for optical defects. Attenuation Determine the extent that light signals of various wavelengths degrade or reduce over certain distances. Information carrying capacity (bandwidth) the number of signals that can be carried at one time (multi-mode fibers) Chromatic dispersion Spread of various wavelengths of light through the core, this is very important for bandwidth. Operating temperature/humidity range Determines the temperature and humidity that the fiber can withstand. Ability to conduct light underwater Important for undersea cables Once t ­he fibers have passed the quality control process, they are sold to telephone companies, cable companies and network providers. Currently many companies are replacing their old copper-wire-based systems with new fiber-optic-based systems to improve speed, capacity and clarity. TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS There are two types of optical fibers: Single Mode Fiber Single mode fibers transmit a single data stream. The core of the glass fiber is much finer than in multi-mode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating little pulse dispersion. Data transmission modes are higher, and the distances that single mode fiber can cover can be over 50 times longer than multi-mode fibers. Telephone and cable television networks install millions of kilometers of this fiber every year. Multi-Mode Fiber Multi-mode fibers allow different data streams to be sent simultaneously over a particular fiber. The glass fiber has a slightly larger diameter to allow light to be sent through the fiber at different angles. An LED or laser light source is used in the 50 micron and 62.5 micron fiber optic cables. They are also used in the same networking applications. The main difference between the two is that 50 micron fiber can support 3 times the bandwidth of 62.5 micron fiber. The 50 micron fiber also supports longer cable runs than 62.5 micron cable. Simplex cable consists of only one single fiber optic strand. The data can only be transmitted in one direction. The duplex cable is made up of two fiber optic strands that run side-by-side. One strand runs from transmit to receive and the other strand joins receive to transmit. This allows communication in both directions (bi-directional) between devices. Some optical fibers can be made from plastic. These fibers have a large core (0.04 inches or 1 mm diameter) and transmit visible red light (wavelength = 650 nm) from LEDs. Due to their inferior optical properties, plastic fiber optic (POF) strands and cables are not suitable for extended data transmission. HOW DOES A FIBER OPTIC CABLE WORK? Traditionally when we sent data transmissions over copper cables we transmit electrons over a copper conductor. Fiber optic cables transmit a digital signal via pulses of light through a very thin strand of glass. The fiber strands are extremely thin, not much thicker than a human hair. The basic fiber optic transmission system consists of three basic components: Transmitter fiber optic cable receiver A transmitter is connected to the one end of the fiber cable. Electronic pulses are converted by the transmitter into light pulses and the optical signal gets sent through the fiber cable. A receiver on the other end decodes the optical signal into digital pulses. The core of the cable is surrounded by a cladding which reflects the light back into the core and eliminates light from escaping the cable. This is called total internal reflection. When light is sent through the core of a fiber optic cable, the light constantly bounces off the cladding, which is highly reflective, like a mirror-lined wall. The cladding does not absorb any light allowing complete internal reflection and allowing the light to travel far distances without losing its intensity. The discovery of lasers influenced the development of fiber optics. Lasers and LEDs can generate an enormous amount of light in a very small area, which can successfully used in fiber optics. Laser diodes are complex semiconductors that convert an electrical current into light. The process of converting the electrical signal into light is far more efficient because it generates less heat than an ordinary light bulb. Reasons for using laser diodes in fiber optics: laser diodes are very small laser diodes are highly reliable and have a long life laser diodes have high radiance laser diodes emit light into a very small area laser diodes can be turned on and off at very high speeds ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTICS The use of fiber optics is fast becoming the medium of choice for telecommunication systems, television transmission and data networks. Fiber optic cables have a multitude of advantages and benefits over the more traditional methods of information systems, such as copper or coaxial cables. Speed One of the greatest benefits to using fiber optic systems is the capacity and speed of such a system. Light travels faster than an electrical system which allows faster delivery and reception of information. Fiber optic cables also have a much higher capacity for bandwidth than the more traditional copper cables. Immunity to electromagnetic interference Coaxial cables have a tendency for electromagnetic interference, which renders them less effective. Fiber optics is not affected by external electrical signals, because the data is transmitted with light. Security Optical systems are more secure than traditional mediums. Electromagnetic interference causes coaxial cables to leak information. Optical fiber makes it impossible to remotely detect the signal being transmitted within the cable. The only way to do so is by actually accessing the optical fiber itself. Accessing the fiber requires intervention that is easily detectable by security surveillance. These circumstances make fiber extremely attractive to governments, banks and companies requiring increased security of data. Fire prevention Copper wire transmission can generate sparks, causing shortages and even fire. Because fiber optical strands use light instead of electricity to carry signals, the chance of an electrical fire is eliminated. This makes fiber optics an exceptionally safe form of wiring and one of the safest forms of data transmission. Data signalling Fiber optic systems are much more effective than coaxial or copper systems, because there is minimal loss of data. This can be credited to the design of optical fibers, because of the principle of total internal reflection. The cladding increases the effectiveness of data transmission significantly. There is no crosstalk between cables, e.g. telephone signals from overseas using a signal bounced off a communications satellite, will result in an echo being heard. With undersea fiber optic cables, you have a direct connection with no echoes. Unlike electrical signals in copper wires the light signals from one fiber do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable. This means clearer phone conversations or TV reception. Less expensive Several kilometers of optical cable can be made far cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper wire. Service, such as the internet is often cheaper because fiber optic signals stay strong longer, requiring less power over time to transmit signals than copper-wire systems, which need high-voltage transmitters. Large Bandwidth, Light Weight and Small Diameter Modern applications require increased amounts of bandwidth or data capacity, fiber optics can carry much larger bandwidth through a much smaller cable and they arent prone to the loss of information. With the rapid increase of bandwidth demand, fiber optics will continue to play a vital role in the long-term success of telecommunications. Space constraints of many end-users are easily overcome because new cabling can be installed within existing duct systems. The relatively small diameter and light weight of optical cables makes such installations easy and practical. Easy Installation and Upgrades Long lengths of optical cable make installation much easier and less expensive. Fiber optic cables can be installed with the same equipment that is used to install copper and coaxial cables. Long Distance Signal Transmission The low attenuation and superior signal capacity found in optical systems allow much longer intervals of signal transmission than metallic-based systems. Metal based systems require signal repeaters to perform satisfactory. Fiber optic cables can transmit over 100km with no active or passive processing. Even greater distances are being investigated for the future. To use fiber optics in data systems have proven to be a far better alternative to copper wire and coaxial cables. As new technologies are developed, transmission will become even more efficient, assuring the expansion of telecommunication, television and data network industries. DISADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTICS Despite the many advantages of fiber optic systems, there are some disadvantages. The relative new technology of fiber optic makes the components expensive. Fiber optic transmitters and receivers are still somewhat expensive compared to electrical components. The absence of standardisation in the industry has also limited the acceptance of fiber optics. Many industries are more comfortable with the use of electrical systems and are reluctant to switch to fiber optics. The cost to install fiber optic systems is falling because of an increase in the use of fiber optic technology. As more information about fiber optics is made available to educate managers and technicians, the use of fiber optics in the industry will increase over time. The advantages and the need for more capacity and information will also increase the use of fiber optics. APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTICS As the popularity of optical fibers continue to grow, so does their applications and practical uses. Fiber optic cables became more and more popular in a variety of industries and applications. Communications / Data Storage Since fiber optics are resistant to electronic noise, fiber optics has made significant advances in the field of communications. The use of light as its source of data transmission has improved the sound quality in voice communications. It is also being used for transmitting and receiving purposes. Military Optical systems offer more security than traditional metal-based systems. The magnetic interference allows the leak of information in the coaxial cables. Fiber optics is not sensitive to electrical interference; therefore fiber optics is suitable for military application and communications, where signal quality and security of data transmission are important. The increased interest of the military in this technology caused the development of stronger fibers, tactical cables and high quality components. It was also applied in more varied areas such as hydrophones for seismic and SONAR, aircrafts, submarines and other underwater applications. Medical Fiber optic are used as light guides, imaging tools and as lasers for surgeries. Another popular use of fiber-optic cable is in an endoscope, which is a diagnostic instrument that enables users to see through small holes in the body. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures. Fiber optics is also used in bronchoscopes and laparoscopes. All versions of endoscopes look like a long thin tube, with a lens or camera at one end through which light is emitted from the bundle of optical fibers banded together inside the enclosure. Mechanical or Industrial Industrial endoscopes also called a borescope or fiberscope, enables the user to observe areas that are difficult to reach or see under normal circumstances, such as jet engine interiors, inspecting mechanical welds in pipes and engines, inspecting space shuttles and rockets. Inspection of sewer lines and pipes. Networking Fiber optic is used to connect servers and users in a variety of network settings. It increases the speed, quality and accuracy of data transmission. Computer and Internet technology has improved due to the enhanced transmission of digital signals through optical fibers. Industrial/Commercial Fiber optics are used for imaging in areas which are difficult to reach. It is also used in wiring where electromagnetic interference is an problem. It gets used often as sensory devices to make temperature, pressure and other measurements as well as in the wiring of motorcars and in industrial settings. Spectroscopy Optical fiber bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance which cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyse its composition. A spectrometer analyses substances by bouncing light off of and through them. By using optical fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects that are too large to fit inside, or gasses, or reactions which occur in pressure vessels Broadcast/CATV/Cable Television Broadcast or cable companies use fiber optic cables for wiring CATV, HDTV, internet, video and other applications. Usage of fiber-optic cables in the cable-television industry began in 1976 and quickly spread because of the superiority of fiber optic cable over traditional coaxial cable. Fiber optic systems became less expensive and capable of transmitting clearer signals further away from the source signal. It also reduced signal losses and decreased the number of amplifiers required for each customer. Fiber optic cable allows cable providers to offer better service, because only one optical line is needed for every  ± 500 households. Lighting and Imaging Fiber optic cables are used for lighting and imaging and as sensors to measure and monitor a vast range of variables. It is also used in research, development and testing in the medical, technological and industrial fields. Fiber optics are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to shine on a target without a clear line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building. Optical fiber illumination is also used for decorative applications, including signs, art and artificial Christmas trees. Optical fiber is an essential part of the light-transmitting concrete building product, LiTraCon which is a translucent concrete building material. Conclusion With the introduction of highly transparent fiber-optic cable in the 1970s, very high-frequency laser signals now carry phenomenal loads of telephone conversations and data across the country and around the world. From surgical procedures to worldwide communication via the internet, fiber optic has revolutionised our world. Fiber optics has made important contributions to the medical field, especially with regards to surgery. One of the most useful characteristics of optical fibers is their ability to enter the minute passageways and hard-to-reach areas of the human body. But perhaps the greatest contribution of the 20th century is the combination of fiber optics and electronics to transformed telecommunications. References / Bibliography Why is fiber optics importany http://library.thinkquest.org/TQ0312432/lessons_part-04.html http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3706